Federica Giaccio[1]
Throughout history, space has been the subject of both scientific and philosophical discussions. In the 20th century, it also became a focal point of international politics, increasing competition among global powers. Scientific interest in space began in Tsarist Russia, where the cosmist movement promoted the idea of human dominance in the universe through science and technology. The concept of "control of the skies" emerged during the Cold War, following the development of military technologies for space research.
The space race, a pivotal moment in the history of space exploration, was marked by intense rivalry, mainly between the United States and the Soviet Union. This rivalry reshaped the geopolitical landscape, leading to a multipolar international community. Space's strategic advantages, such as monitoring enemy activities and facilitating global communications through satellites, fueled the race to establish control over it.
The dynamics linked to the discovery and human control of space influenced the Cold War period's political and legal context. This process presented significant parallels with conquests of "unknown" spaces, such as the frontier.
Western North America and the scramble for Africa were cases in which the need for a sovereign political subject was felt. Therefore, those territories were considered res nullius; similarly, space was endowed with the exact legal nature as the territories conquered by Western peoples during the 19th century. This condition determined competitive tendencies between the United States and the Soviet Union, which found themselves acting in an arena whose degree of anarchy was even more intense due to the absence of institutions capable of tempering its effects.
The nations involved in the space contest, recognised that having the highest vantage point, provided unparalleled advantages. The ability to monitor enemy movements, track missile launches, and gather strategic intelligence became crucial.
The Moon program, led by the USA, was a monumental achievement in space exploration. It not only marked a significant milestone but also triggered the creation of international treaties.
The need to preserve space and avoid the absurdity of transferring national emulation beyond the atmosphere also moved into the orbit of international law, sanctioning the Outer Space Treaty in 1967, which prohibits any claim of territorial space and four other treaties aimed at maintaining the peaceful use of space, astronauts, the Moon and celestial bodies ratified between 1967 and 1979 (Hobe, 2010).
These treaties were a crucial step towards ensuring the peaceful use of space, marking a significant shift from military dominance to peaceful international collaboration. This transition towards scientific research led to greater participation from countries like Japan, China, and India. It culminated in the establishment of the International Space Station, a symbol of close cooperation among various nations.
The democratisation of space access has significantly increased the involvement of private actors in space programs (Baiocchi and Welser, 2015). This shift has paved the way for future human missions to the Moon and beyond, heralding a new era in space exploration. Consequently, discussions on space exploration and resource utilisation are becoming more prominent at institutional and commercial levels. The growing discourse around the commercialisation of space and its resources has brought it to the forefront of conversation within both governmental and non-governmental sectors. Corporations are increasingly attracted to the opportunity to address the novel technological and commercial challenges in the space domain, which has given rise to the New Space Economy, presenting itself as a pivotal arena for high-technology innovation and commercial and strategic development opportunities (Sommariva, 2020).
The transition from (only) military space application to Earth observation and environmental preservation represents a significant paradigm shift in the utilization of space technologies.
Space has not only played a crucial role in military applications but has also significantly contributed to the development and implementation of specific technologies in daily life. An increasing number of aspects of our daily lives are connected to the space sector, such as the satellite data used for navigation and the telecommunications industry. The New Space Economy refers to the portion of the economy focused on the growth, development, and management of tools, infrastructure, and techniques for utilizing cosmic space. It serves as a catalyst for innovation, extending beyond the traditional confines of space (Jakhu, 2009)
A standout example is the development of the satellite navigation system (GPS), whose evolution has remarkably impacted various aspects of our daily routine. GPS technology has completely transformed how we navigate, revolutionising transportation and making vehicle and pedestrian traffic more precise and efficient. In addition, it has profoundly impacted agricultural practices, empowering precision farming and leading to enhanced resource management. Furthermore, GPS emerged as a critical tool in dealing with environmental disasters, providing crucial support for search and rescue operations, and effectively coordinating emergency services during crises.
Another noteworthy transformation, transitioning from exclusive military use to civilian applications, is the evolution of reconnaissance satellites into advanced remote sensing satellites. These satellites are now employed in monitoring the Earth’s surface and providing high-resolution images to facilitate agricultural pursuits, urban planning and, even in this case, natural disaster management. The incorporation of military-grade technology in satellites has enabled real-time data collection and transmission, pivotal for prompt responses to hurricanes, floods and wildfires.
European role in Earth Observation
During the initial phase of space age, Europe appeared to be left out from competing with the United States and the Soviets. This was not only due to its apparent lack of direct interest in space exploration, but also because it did not have any nation or Community space programs that could be compared to those of the US and the USSR.
However, there was a clear desire among European nations to join the space race. Italian physicist Edoardo Amaldi, who was the director of CERN, proposed the idea of uniting the six member countries of EURATOM, as well as including England and the Scandinavian countries, to develop a detailed plan comparable to the US and the Soviet projects. The goal was to access the expenses and create a realistic timeline, while hoping to resolve the financial issue with the direct collaboration of the governments of the member countries involved in the project.
The European program aimed to become independent from the United States and stressed the importance of maintaining a peaceful approach to the project. This was particularly crucial during that time, as there was a looming possibility of an escalating conflict between the two superpowers, which could extend into the realm of space (Giaccio, 2022).
ELDO and ESRO were created and in 1974, they merged to form ESA (European Space Agency), which is headquartered in Paris and has a spaceport in French Guiana.
The strengthening of this new agency involved collaboration between Belgium, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. It was the prelude to an increasingly intense cooperation that even the forerunners of research, such as The Italian Amaldi, had identified as the only path for spatial progress in the Old Continent and beyond.
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, in the 20th century, governments founded space activities primarily for geopolitical influence, as well as to support their industrial policy and to support fertile scientific research. The development of a service industry around satellite launches during the Cold War featured these goals.
In 1979, ESA developed the Ariane spacecraft to achieve independence from non-European interests. This ensured autonomy in launching satellites, including those for Earth observation.
Europe competes on the podium of the leading New Space players—with the exclusion of private players—by having both the know-how and the competitive industrial capabilities (Mauro, 2021) and coordinated agencies such as ESA, which allows access to its research to start-ups and industries to promote industrial competitiveness in the European space sector (ESA, Agenda).
“ESA's purpose shall be to provide for, and to promote, for exclusively peaceful purposes, cooperation among European States in space research and technology and their space applications, with a view to their being used for scientific purposes and for operational space applications systems” (Article II, Purpose, Convention of establishment of a European Space Agency).
ESA soon became one of the first arenas for the civilian use of satellites for the environment. In 19, Meteosat satellites ERS-1, ERS-2, and Envisat marked the beginning of ESA’s engagement in observing Earth from space. Then, Meteosat satellites ERS-1, ERS-2, and Envisat provided a great quantity of valuable data about Earth, its climate, and changing environment.
On February 22, 1986, Europe marked a significant milestone with the launch of its first Earth observation satellite, SPOT 1, aboard an Ariane 1 rocket from Kourou. This event heralded three decades of groundbreaking technological advancements and numerous new applications.
Figure 1 Science for Environment Policy. European Commission, February 2013
The Copernicus program, formerly known as Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES), is a flagship initiative of the European Union developed in partnership with the European Space Agency. It serves as a catalyst for economic development and fosters innovation within the EU.
The Copernicus program began wirh a series of meetings in 1998 in Baveno (Italy), between the European Commission and representatives of the European space industry. These meetings led to the “Manifesto di Baveno” (https://insitu.copernicus.eu/news/the-copernicus-in-situ-component-since-the-baveno-manifesto), which called for a long-term commitment to developing space-based environmental monitoring services in Europe (Brachet, 2004). The manifesto represented a call for joint European action to improve environmental monitoring from space and define a strategy con climate change, seeking to develop a “European Strategy for Space” with close collaboration between ESA and the European Union.
Recognising the complementary between space-based and in-situ observation, the concept of the “Integrated Global Observation Strategy” (IGOS) was introduced, leading to the creation of IGOS Partnership (IGOS-P) in 1998. The IGOS-P aimed to bring together space-based, in-situ and other observation networks to enable the integration and sharing of information between user communities and scientific research worldwide. Representatives of the European Commission, ESA, Eumetsat, and the nation space agencies of France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom participated in the discussion. It was recognized that Europe had difficulty transforming R&D-driven space observations into operational systems serving the concrete needs of society. This situation encouraged the different actors to develop a plan to create a European strategy in Earth observation, with the idea emerging that a global environmental information service could be a relevant solution for implementing the Kyoto Protocol. Several research topics and applications were developed from remote sensing data through its Joint Research Center and its Space Applications Institute (SAI) in Ispra, Italy.
Copernicus, an Earth observation system reliant on remote sensing technology, is specifically engineered to monitor the planet Earth scientifically. Its pertinence was underscored during the crises of 2019, such as the fires in Siberia and the Amazon, reinforcing Europe’s leadership in emergency management. This further emphasises the vital role of Copernicus in supplying essential data for comprehending and addressing global occurrences.
The data provided by Copernicus is comprehensive, freely accessible, and unreservedly available, and when complemented with other satellite repositories, it is instrumental in climate monitoring, modelling and forecasting. Regarded as a foundation element alongside other EU undertakings like SEIS (Shared Environmental Information System) and INSPIRE (Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Union), Copernicus holds significant importance.
As a member of the Group on Earth Observation (GEO), the European Commission collaborates with 88 participating governments to establish a global network of Earth observation systems known as the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS).
In the domain of Earth Observation, the 2024 budget for the European Space Angency reflects a 30.5% increment compared to the previous year, with major contributions originating from Italy, Germany and France.
Figure 2 ESA milestone 2024
Conclusions
The transition from sky control to advanced Earth observation, underscores the profound impact of space exploration on our world. It has revolutionized how we comprehend and Interact with our planet, driven technological innovation, and ushered in new frontiers for human endeavor. As we persist in the exploration and utilization of space, the potential for positive change and progress is boundless.
The technological progress stimulated by space exploration has had far-reaching implications extending beyond the realm of Science; advancements in material sciences, telecommunications, computing and Other domains have been propelled by the exigencies of space travel. The miniaturization of technology, imperative for space missions, has also catalyzed a Revolution in consumer eletronics, resulting in smaller, more potente, and more cost-effective devices.
Moreover, the pursuit of space exploration has engendered inspiration for generations of scientists, engineers and researchers on every field, fostering international collaboration. The International Space Station sands as a testimony to the potential of global cooperation, providing a platform for scientific research benefiting almost the entirety of humankind.
Looking forward, the possibilities of space exploration appear boundless. Prospects such as missions to Mars or the development of space tourism, are but a few of the thrilling opportunities on the horizon. These endeavors not Only pledge to augment our knowledge, but also to propel further technological and economic growth. For instance, the concept of asteroid mining could unlock vast resources, alleviating material shortages on Earth.
Furthermore, space exploration harbors the potential to unify humanity in a manner few Other pursuits can. The view of Earth from space, “a precious, fragile ball of life hanging in the void of space” (Edgar Mitchell, Apollo 14 astronaut, 1971), underscores our collective existence and the necessity to collaborate in safeguarding our home.
Bibliography
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[1] Ph.D. Student in Comparative law and Integration processes, at University of Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Caserta, Italy
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